Money for Sex; Nothing for Free
The Islamic Cairene Household 2002
Amanda Blake
December 14,2002
In the year 2002, there is almost no field in which Egyptian women have not
ventured; yet their status in society remains unequal to that of men. Although
a common theme throughout the Qu’ran is the relationship of equality
between man and woman and their interdependency, the Qu’ran acknowledges
that man is superior. The following two verses of the Qu’ran confirms
this statement:
“And it is for the women to act as they (the husbands) act by them,
in all fairness; but the men are a step above them”(Q2:
228).
“ Men have authority over women because Allah has made one superior
to the other ”(Q4: 34).
This contradiction has led to a patriarchal system that devalues the importance
of the Muslim woman. Some have argued that it is not the ideology of Islam
that oppresses woman, but man’s interpretation of it that has given
him power over her.
In the past twenty years under the direction of President Mubarak, women
have made enormous strides: In 1999, women accounted for 30% of the total
labor
force, illiteracy rates for women between the ages of 28-44 have dropped
to 28%; the number of women attending universities reached 593,000 in 1999;
women
represent 161 out of 900 foreign diplomats; and in February of 2000, the
National Council of women was established (Egypt Magazine 2002). Although
Egyptian
women have made significant advancements, Nawal El Saadawi views this as
result of the western influences on Arab countries. “Whatever improvements
there have been in the personal status of women, as wives or mothers, is
not
so much due to law, still supported by powerful and conservative forces,
but rather to the socioeconomic changes that have taken place”(123).
As Egypt moves from a government –controlled economy to a free market
system, opportunities exist for women to assume a more equitable role. The
modernization
of the Egyptian economy has led to a cost of living increase that in many
families necessitates the need for women to make contributions towards the
household. Money or the ability to make it has been the deciding factor as
to who has control in the relationship. If women are going to forfeit their
previous status of being provided for, shouldn’t there be a reinterpretation
of their role in society?
The family is often identified as the primary location of women’s oppression.
The Personal Status Laws which are governed under Islamic law organize the
boundaries of marriage through all its stages. They have a tremendous impact
on the gender and power hierarchies within the family; I contend that women
should use their newfound economic power to redefine the Personal Status Laws
in hopes of obtaining gender equality.
The
Personal Status Laws
The personal status laws which consist of laws governing marriage, divorce,
and inheritance are based upon sharia, Islamic laws. Debates over these
laws
first emerged in the nineteenth century when customs of female seclusion
and the lack of education were questioned.
The first revision of these laws occurred in 1915 when women were given the
right to sue for divorce on a limited basis. Egypt passed laws in 1920 and
1929 that set conditions for a woman to obtain a divorce. These conditions
prevailed, if a woman was deserted, mistreated, denied financial maintenance
or
if her husband was imprisoned or had a serious contagious disease. In the
1940s, women were allowed to write clauses into their wedding contracts
restricting
their husband’s right to take another wife.
The most progressive personal status laws were introduced
in 1979 under President Anwar al Sadat. The 1979 personal status reforms
had
incorporated new grounds for divorce by a woman if her husband took another
wife without her consent. She was to be informed if her husband divorced
her
and allowed to obtain a notarized certificate of divorce. The divorced wife
retained custody of her children until the age of 10 for a boy and 12 for
a girl. She was also to be awarded the family apartment until she remarried.
These reforms also gave the women the right to work, so long as it did not
interfere with their "family duties," and ended the practice of
bayt al- ta’a, the practice of locking a wife up until the husband
obtained obedience. Unfortunately in 1985 the personal status laws were
ruled unconstitutional
and most, but not all of the advances made were rolled back.
A new personal status law was passed in January of 2000. Under this law a
wife can file for divorce on any grounds as long as she is willing to forfeit
alimony payment and return the dowry payment given to her. The personal laws
of 2000 also include the creation of a family court that will be able to facilitate
divorce cases and a family insurance plan. Perhaps what stands out the most
about the personal laws of 2000 are the exclusions of key issues. The following
issues were excluded: restrictions on polygamy; efforts to encourage women’s
inclusion of protective clauses in their marriage contracts; the woman’s
right to travel without her husband’s or male guardian’s consent;
and the ability to confer citizenship to children borne to an Egyptian woman
and a non- Egyptian man.
The fact that the personal status laws have undergone several revisions leads me to believe that Islam is a religion that is capable of adapting to the needs of society. It is not necessarily Islam that is oppressive, but conservative Islamists who choose to purport man’s superiority over woman. There have been and will continue to be revisions that will benefit women.
The Role of Men and Women in Islam
In order to fully evaluate this claim it is necessary
to review the role of men and women in Islam. Islamic religion considers
the
women’s role as mother and wife to be sacred and essential. Marriage
and motherhood are a woman’s primary responsibilities. In Islam a
woman can not remain single-- it is not a sin, but it is not encouraged.
Marriage
offers respectability thus it is necessary for women to focus on her motherhood
and household responsibilities. Sherif (1999) notes that the ideal woman
is
a wife and mother, she is a woman who raises a new generation of Muslims,
wears the veil, guards her modesty, obeys her husband and expresses her
views
only through her husband. It is believed that women should forfeit their
physical and psychological safety as well as that of their daughters to
their husbands
and other male family members.
Men are viewed as the protectors of women. A woman is her husband’s
wife, her father’s daughter, and her brother’s sister. It is
his responsibility to provide for all of her needs. The man is the economic
provider
and authority in the household. Traditional roles in which the home is the
woman’s domain while the outside world is the man’s domain
have created a separatist environment that reinforces the roles of
the sexes.
Marriage
Egyptian Style
Under Egyptian law women are eligible for marriage once they reach the age
of sixteen while the age set for men is eighteen. It is preferable that the
woman is a virgin since it is a requirement of many men. In March 2002, Egypt’s
Mufti, Sheikh Ahmed El- Tayyeb denounced the persistence of forced marriages.
The Qu’ran promotes the right for people to choose their mate. “
Do not prevent them from marrying their husbands when they agree between themselves
in a lawful manner”(Qu’ran 2:232). However social class is still
the determining factor when it comes to who can marry whom.
Women may never gain equal status as long as a
policy exists in which payment is exchanged for marriage. Traditionally
in
order for a man to wed a woman he must present her with a dowry. This dowry
payment is a form of ownership that can be equated as the woman being
the
man’s property. The average cost of marriage for men is six years of
wages. This sum includes payment for the dowry, formal engagement and
wedding
parties, and the purchase of an apartment with major appliances and furniture.
Marriage is an investment in which the return is obedience and control from
the woman.
Every Islamic marriage becomes valid through the signing of a marriage contract.
Under this contract, it is the duty of the of the husband to provide for
his
wife under three conditions: that she signs the contract; that she puts herself
under her husband’s authority to allow him free access to her and
that she obeys him for the duration of the marriage (Sherif 1999). Under
this marriage
contract women are giving away their power to men, who will dictate their
freedom and happiness, for financial security. Marriage to the traditional
women means a host of reciprocal commitment; money for food, furniture and
clothes to be provided by the husband in return for care, protection of
honor,
obedience, and above all sexual favors from the wife (Bibars 1996).
Due to the costs associated with traditional marriages, many Egyptian men and women are settling for urfi marriages. It is a marriage without an official contract. The couple repeats the words “we got married” and pledges commitment before God. Usually a paper signed by two witnesses stating that the two were married serves as proof that the marriage exists. The man is not financially obligated to the woman and it is not necessary to share the same residence. The invention of this type of marriage is an indication that the financial ties associated to marriage needs to be relaxed in order for marriage to be an option for more people.
Education’s affect on the status of women
Women’s education is the single most important path to gender equality.
Education is essential for improving women’s living standards and enabling
them to exercise a greater voice in the decision making in the family, community,
work, and the political arena.
It was a commonly held belief that women did not need a formal education
and that they should learn domestic skills to be better
wives.
It is still common today to find examples in which girls are removed from
schooling in order to help take care of family or to work for the family’s
survival. The Egyptian government encourages education for both girls and
boys by providing a free education through the doctoral level. If she is
graduated from an institution of higher education, she is usually guaranteed
a position.
Culturally, the education of women gained acceptance because it enhances
the women’s role as wives and mothers.
Education provides the framework that allows a
woman to develop skills that will allow her to seek employment and gain independence.
Her ability to obtain employment will lead to economic independence from men.
Employment
and the Egyptian Women
Islam does not prevent women from seeking employment outside of the home
although it regards her role in society as mother and wife as the most important
role
she can have. Traditionally, men have been responsible for the economic support
of their families, and only a minority of very poor or very wealthy was
economically
active in the public sphere. The discouragement of women’s economic
role is legitimized by the prevailing value system and associated norms.
These
values and norms denigrate women’s labor and contrast it to women’s
domesticity, which is commended. Badawi’s statement “that there
is no decree which forbids woman from seeking employment whenever there
is
a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which
society needs her most” demonstrates that people feel that only the
poor should work and that there are gender specific careers which woman
should
enter. Meanwhile, Islam has no restriction on women’s occupation, saying
they can engage in all areas whether technical, medical, political, financial
or in academic. Mohammad's first wife was a successful merchant; one of his
daughters led an army. As of 1999, women accounted for 30% of the labor force.
However, social pressures against women pursuing a
career are strong. Dana Smille in her article entitled “ Su-per-wom-an” cites
that there is a societal personality to confine women to the roles of mother
and homemaker; her career ambitions do not figure in the definition of a
good Egyptian wife (2001). A woman who works can bring shame on a man since
it
insinuates that the man is not a good provider. It is viewed as an example
that the man does not have control over his wife. Many believe that allowing
their wives to work is a privilege not to be taken for granted (Smillie 2001).
On the other hand, women have to contend with society questioning whether
or
not she is a good mother or wife. She has to defend her right to paid work
in the face of familial and community opposition. Although she works, she
is expected to maintain the household as if she was unemployed without the
support of her husband.
As of 2001, it is estimated that 67% of women in Egypt are employed. As of
the spring 2002, Egyptian households that are headed by women represented
20% of the population. These statistics and the invention of urfi marriages
can be construed as indicators that men are no longer able to fulfill their
obligation as the solo care givers for the family. Many families don’t
have enough disposable income which will allow the wife to stay home and
care
for the family and home. Bahir Sherif conducted a study which consisted of
forty middle class households in which twenty couples were in their forties
and fifties, and the other twenty couples were between twenty and thirty
years of age. He discovered that in contemporary Cairo, married upper class
women
are forced to work in order to assist in meeting the financial needs of the
family. This study demonstrated that in Cairo, relatively well-to-do men
have
suddenly found themselves in the position of being dependent on their wives'
incomes just to make ends meet and to keep up their position in society.
Many
are unaccustomed to this new role because they were raised in families in
which women did not work.
In 1996, Iman Bibars completed a study on female head of the households which
excluded widows, divorcees, and deserted wives. Her study dealt with the
new
breed of “useless” husbands. Bibars interviewed sixty -seven
women of lower income in the Cairo area. “These women did not
perceive their reproductive role to include sexual favors but saw it as
an additional
role, given to men who earn it by being breadwinners. These women felt that
their husbands failed by no longer providing for them and consequently so
did their role as women.” (Bibars 1996)
I don’t believe that Cairene women will ever attain true equality as
long as there is a monetary value assessed to her. This practice does not
promote respect. It demeans her worth. According to reports one in three
married women have experienced spousal abuse. (Marble 1996). A majority
of married
women in Egypt believe that is the man’s right to beat his wife. In
her article Marble discovered that women justified these beatings for the
following reasons: talking back to the spouse, refusing to have sex, burning
food, neglecting children, talking to other men, and wasting money. Women
are conditioned to believe that it is a man’s right because her obedience
was bought through the acceptance of the dowry payment. This society subscribes
to the Cinderella theory. That man will come along and make a woman complete.
He is the savior of woman.
If the optimal goal is gender equality then the sharia will need to be reevaluated
to discuss marital assets. Presently women enjoy a position of what is mine
is mine, and what is yours is ours. If the wife works, she may choose, but
is not legally obligated to invest her earning in the matrimonial home. (Sherif
1996) How can you have one person assigned the task of maintaining the family
and allow the other to dispose of her wealth as she pleases? When you have
two parties working towards a common goal, it results in team effort instead
of individual struggle of power.
Secondly, Egyptian youth must be taught that there are no specific gender
roles. A survey consisting of 660 unmarried girls and boys between the ages
of 16-19 conducted by the Adolescent and Social Change demonstrates that both
girls and boys support a traditional division between men and women. (Population
of Beliefs 2001) The roles of men and women are taught in school and at home.
If the next generation of youth are not taught differently, the cycle will
be perpetuated. Little girls should be encouraged to enter the public sphere
and to take advantage of the educational opportunities afforded to them. Boys
must be taught that they can do household work and that child rearing is the
responsibility of both parties.
It must be mentioned that in no way does the paper intend to devalue the role
of motherhood and the family. It is my opinion that women’s willingness
to sacrifice themselves for the good of their children is something that society
relies upon. It is a useful leverage in pressuring women of all classes into
giving in to unequal ideas. Just because a woman chooses or is unable to stay
home with her child does not mean that she loves her child any less than the
mother who stays at home. Based on the studies by Bibar and Sherif, both classes
of women agree that by working they are able to do a better job of providing
for their children. One of the deficiencies of this paper is that it I did
not have an opportunity to speak to an Egyptian female to determine how she
feels about her status and whether she believes a change is necessary.
Women will not become more empowered merely because we want them to want to be, but through the legislative changes, increased information, and redirection of sources. As the number of educated women that enter the workforce increases, voices will be heard crying for change. If they choose to incorporate my three recommendations, Egyptian women will no longer be treated as second class citizens. During my interview with Amirah Muhammad, she stated that is possible to be a good Muslim wife, mother, and professional woman. It is a matter of keeping everything in perspective and knowing what your priorities are.
References
AbuKhalil, A (1997,spring) Gender boundaries and sexual categories in the Arab world. Feminist Issues 15(1&2) Retrieved October 3,2000 from EBSCOhost.
Abdul-Rauf, M. (2002, March) Islamic view of woman and the family now: Egyptian mufti denounces ill treatment of women Retrived October 24,2002 from Lexis Nexis.
Ahmed, L (1992) Women and gender in Islam. London: Yale University Press.
Ali, K (1996, October). The Politics of family planning in EgyptAnthropology Today 12(5) Retrieved October 3,2002 from EBSCOHost .
Barber, B (1995) Jihad vs Mc World: terrorism challenge to democracy.New York: Ballantine.
Bibars,I (1996,August) Women : reconciling contradictory roles.(Essay) Retrieved November 3,2002 from the world wide: Http/www.ibnkhaldum.org/newsletter/1996/aug/essay.htm .
Brooks, G (1995) Nine parts of desire; the hidden world of Islamic women. New York: Anchor Books.
" Cairo(Egypt)" Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2002 http://encarta.msn.com
Cochran.J (1992) Western higher education and identity conflict:The Egyptian professional. Covergence 25(3) Retrieved November 1, 2002 from EBSCOhost.
Dammaj, Z.D.(1994) the Hostage ( Jayusi, M& Tinley, C ,Trans)New York: Interlink Books (Original Work published 1984).
"Egyptian women and modernization of society". (2002,March) Egypt Magazine 28. Retrieved October28, 2002 from world wide web://www.sis.gov.ed/public/magazine/iss028/mag01.htm
El- Saadawi,N (1980) The Hidden face of Eve: women in the
Arab world (Hetat,S Trans) London and New York: Zed Books LTD.
El- Saadawi, N (1985) God dies by the Nile (Hetata,S Trans) London
and New York: Zed Books (Original work published in 1974).
Fauziya,K &Bashir L.M. (1998) Do they hear you when you cry?
New York: Delacorte Press.
Ferrah, M.(1986) Marriage and sexuality in Islam: translation
of al- Ghazali’s book on etiquette of marriage from Ihiya .
Salt Lake City: University of Utah
Gender roles sharply differentiated among Egyptian youth. (2001,June ) Population
beliefs.7(2) Retrieved November 3,2002 from the world wide web :http //www.popcouncil.org/publications/popbeliefs/pb7(2)-5.html
Goodwin, Jan (1994) Price of honor: Muslim woman lift the veil. New
York: Penguin Books.
Muhamad.K personal interview on December 12,2002.
Rafiqul- Haqq, M. &Newton, P (1996) The Place of Woman in Pure Islam. Retrieved September 27,2002 from the world wide web: http://Debate.domini. org/newton/womeng.html.
Sheri,B. (1999,august)Gender contradictions in families. Anthropology
Today.15(4)Retrieved November 1,2002 from EBSCOhost.
Smille, Dana (2001) Su- per- wom-an. Egypt Newspaper. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
on December 10,2002.
Smucker, P. (2001,February) Egypt’s battle against female circumcision. Christian Science Monitor .93(64) Reviewed October 3,2002 from EBSCOhost.
Spray, Lisa. (2002) Womens’s
Rights: the Quran and Islam New York: BSM Press.
Women's International Network News (2001,spring) 27(2) Female genital cutting-findings
from the demographic and health surveys program.
Zurhur, S. (2001,March) The mixed impact of feminist struggles
in Egypt during the 1990's. MERIA(Middle East Review of Internal Affairs)Journal.
5 (1)Retrieved November 3,2002 from the world wide webhttp//meria.idc.ac.11/journal/2001/issue1/jv5n1a6.html
.